Underclass in Britain Essay Example

Underclass in Britain Paper An increase in the number of jobs available wouldnt reduce unemployment or the underclass though as these unemployed illegitimate criminals dont want jobs as receiving benefits is a far more attractive alternative option. Not surprisingly Murrays views on the welfare state and the underclass attracted many criticisms, many of whom believe that the welfare state does not provide an underclass. In terms of illegitimacy J. Brown (In Murray, C. 1993:61) points out that Murray merely picked out the statistics he wanted to support his one sided arguments on illegitimacy, who choose not to work, marry and be dependent upon long term benefits. We will write a custom essay sample on Underclass in Britain specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Underclass in Britain specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Underclass in Britain specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Whereas 25% if single mothers work part-time, they actually spend less time on benefits than widowed and divorced mother do and 60% if single mothers remarried by the time their child is 5 yr. old and 70% of them are married when the child is ages 7 yr. old, (Ermisch in Murray, C. 1993:63) therefore there are no a wave of children with no role models in terms of a father figure. Deakin (In Murray, C. 1993:75) further more supports Browns argument by suggesting that illegitimacy rates have not increased because of the welfare state but because there has been a decline in the popularity of marriage. If you cut benefits as Murray implies then single mothers will be forced to stay dependent upon them , with no means to go back to work or to find a job and if they did work when their child is still a baby and very dependent on the carer they would be seen as a bad mother. It seems that it is a vicious crucial, cutting benefits leads to problems and having benefits leads to an underclass! How the welfare state promotes violent crime is bizarre to even suggest I feel, how can welfare increase crime, what benefits do criminals get from the welfare state? My opinion is supported by Deakin (In Murray. C, 1993:76) as a completely flawed correlation, Murrays use of British Crime Statistics actually forces the theory to it knees (ibid. ). Crime maybe inter-related with illegitimacy and unemployment but it doesnt increase because of the welfare state directly. Field, to a certain extent agreed with Murray in terms of the welfare state encouraging unemployment. Trying to get the young disillusioned unemployed worker back into work is a mammoth problematic task, YTS schemes and the new deal are not popular and are only a mere feasible attempt to address the problems created by the welfare state Murray might argue. YTS schemes are unpopular and unsuccessful in getting people back into work as they are just forms of slave labour, they seek to blame the victim or there own poverty and misfortunes very much like the Victorian Middle Class of the 18/19th century did, many people have little choice in their own making and are forced by uncontrollable circumstances to become unemployed and part of an illegitimate family, Walker (In Murray. C, 1993:69). The weight of Murrays argument and its criticisms it seems to suggest that welfare does not create an underclass to the extent that Murray believed. His ideas tend to be focused upon the moralising agenda of the underclass, where he refers to a type of poverty rather than to the degree of poverty that the underclass experience. He only focuses upon social welfare creating an underclass and ignores fiscal and occupational welfare, maybe he didnt believe these were responsible for creating an underclass or was it a case of those who are dependent upon these forms of welfare are generally the Middle Classes and these Middle Classes only use certain forms of social welfare such as the NHS and education and are not supcitible to a decline in their moral/values like the Working Class and underclass who use these forms of welfare? It is not the case that the welfare state is the cause of the underclass rather how the term underclass is perceived which depends whether you are part of the so called underclass or overclass (Walker in Murray. C, 1993:71) which relates back to the problem of such a strong derogatory term as underclass so much so that it is an unhelpful concept that cannot explain its own emergence in the welfare state of Britain. But even in todays government Tony Blair has been influenced by Murrays theory of an underclass in the welfare state by stating that the underclass are set apart from the mainstream of society pointing to the need to re-moralise the underclass/poor, what then for the future of the welfare state and the underclass? If Britain took literally and followed the inhumane radical suggestions of Murray would it necessarily make the underclass dependent? Looking back in history to Victorian times, where welfare was far from generous-but a deterrent for idleness, why was there a growing Working Class or underclass growing out of control? In line with Murrays seemingly Victorian attitude to poverty is the fact that he focuses upon the fact that poverty is the fault of the underclass in terms of their behaviour which diverts the attention away form the view that the phenomenon f the underclass could be caused by the failure of the economic and labour market polices and be a result of political causes mot that they are the ones making the wrong moral choices (Alcock. P, in Murray. C, 1993:140) Bibliography Deakin, N. (1990) Mr Murrays Ark.in Murray, C (1990) The Emerging British Underclass IEA London Dean H. and Taylor-Gooby,P. (1992) Dependency Culture Harvester Wheatsheaf, Ermisch, J. F. (1991) Lone parenthood : an economic analysis Cambridge : Cambridge Univeristy Press, Field, F. , (1989) Losing Out The Emergence of Britains Underclass, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Fitzpatrick,T. (1996) Postmodernism, Welfare and Radical Politics. In Journal of Social Policy, 25. 3. pp303-320 Lister, R. (1996) (ed) Charles Murray and the Underclass The Developing Debate IEA Health and Welfare Unit. London. MacDonald, R. (ed) (1997) Youth, the underclass and Social Exclusion, Routlegde, London Mann, K. (1992) The Making of an English Underclass? Milton Keneys, Open University Press. Murray, C. (1990) The Emerging British UNDERCLASS. IEA Health and Welfare Unit, Murray, C. (1994) Underclass The Crisis Deepens I. E. A. Smith, D. J. (ed) (1992) Understanding the Underclass PSI London. Walker, A. (Ed) (1996) The New Generational Contract Intergenerational relations, old age and welfare. UCL Press. London. ANGELA ALCOCK FAO Banu.

That Newfangled Technology Essays

That Newfangled Technology Essays That Newfangled Technology Paper That Newfangled Technology Paper Set Phasers on Stun Case Case 14: That Newfangled Technology Summary: On the morning of September 8, 1923, Lieutenant Commander Donald T. Hunter was assigned to responsible for leading fourteen destroyers of Destroyer Squadron 11 to depart from San Francisco to San Diego. They were returning home after an escorting Battle Division 4 from Puget Sound to San Francisco. At that time, the Destroyer Squadron comprised with leading flagship that commanded by Captain Hunter, USS Delphy (DD-261) and followed by; the four ships of Destroyer Division 33, USS S. P. Lee (DD-310), USS Young (DD-312), USS Woodbury (DD-309), and USS Nicholas (DD-311); the five ships from Destroyer Division 31, USS Farragut (DD-300), USS Fuller (DD-297), USS Percival (DD-298), USS Somers (DD-301), and USS Chauncey (DD-296); and four ships from Destroyer Division 32, USS Kennedy (DD-306), USS Paul Hamilton (DD-307), USS Stoddert (DD-302), and USS Thomson (DD-305). The warships conducted tactical gears and weaponry exercises en route, including a competitive speed run of 20 knots. Later in the day, as weather worsened, the ships formed up a column on the squadron leader â€Å"Delphy†. That evening, around 2000 hours (8:00 p. . ), the leading flagship broadcast an erroneous report, based on an improperly interpreted radio compass bearing, showing the squadrons position about nine miles off Point Arguello. About an hour later, the destroyers turned east to enter what was thought to be the Santa Barbara Channel, though it could not be seen owing to the thick fog. Unfortunately, due to a combination of abnormally strong currents and navigational complacency, it led the squadron onto the rocks offshore point and rugged area of San Miguel Island, near Honda Point. Just after turning, Delphy struck the rocks at 2105 (9:05 p. m. ), plowing ashore at 20 knots. More than worse, Delphy was followed by S. P. Lee, which hit and swung broadside against the bluffs. Young piled up adjacent to Delphy and capsized, trapping many of her fire and engine room crew below. While Woodbury, Nicholas, and Fuller struck reefs and ran aground offshore, Chauncey ran in close aboard Young. However, the alarm sirens slowed Somers and Farragut enough, so they just touched ground before backing off to deeper water while the five other destroyers steered completely clear. Although heavy pounding surf broke over the seven stranded destroyers, eventually breaking the Delphy into two parts. Hundreds of thousands gallons of fuel oil from seven ships spilled into the crashing waves, carbide bombs were exploded when they came in contact with the water, and numerous fires began on the ships and on the surface of the sea. Finally, 23 men died in the ensuring attempts to abandon the ships and make it to shore in the darkness and heavy surf. About 450 survivors from the seven warships made their way slowly to the narrow and rocky beach below the cliff during the hour that followed. S. P. Lee S. P. Lee Fuller Fuller Woodbury Woodbury Chauncey Chauncey Delphy Delphy Young Young Nicholas Nicholas What Went Wrong: It later turned out to the light that the Squadron was actually several miles north and further east, but Captain Hunter had disbelieved the accuracy of a Point Arguello radio signal. Following the turn, Point Arguello was dead ahead, and distant only about two nautical miles. The Point Arguello light may have been hidden by the fog. However, did Captain Hunter issue an order to change-of course of 95 ° left turn, or did he order his ships to turn to a bearing of 95 ° magnetic? Additional Factors: Communication between Captain Hunter and Radioman Falls: The communication between Captain Hunter and the radioman was misunderstood. The radioman would report the wrong bearings, when the reciprocal bearing should have been reported instead. Had the correct bearings been reported from the beginning, the ship wouldn’t have crashed. â€Å"Newfangled Technology† Feedback: The mistaken â€Å"error† proved that Captain Hunter cannot always rely on his strong self-reliance and that even a skilled mathematician makes mistakes; and that it’s acceptable to rely on technology. There was no feedback given back to Captain Hunter to state its’ reasoning behind the bearing that was being reported to him. Also, there was no feedback given to challenge Captain Hunter’s navigations. If more feedback was given, it could have been sensed that navigation was off route. Continued use of â€Å"That Newfangled Technology†: After the incident of being reported the wrong bearings, Captain Hunter still continued to use the navigation by radio bearing. It was assumed as an honest mistake. It wasn’t until after the crash that Captain Hunter realized that the radioman was giving him the correct bearings from the beginning. This could have been prevented if the system would have been checked after the first wrong bearing, to see what the reasoning behind such an error was; instead of continuing on the journey. More Information: According to an article by Noah Andre Trudeau, â€Å"California Naval History – Point Honda: A Naval Tragedy’s Chain of Errors†, a lean budget and distrust of new technology contributed to a naval tragedy at Honda Point, California (Trudeau, 2012). Speed was the essential creed of the early to mid-20th century destroyer driver. Determination and self-confidence was a style of command in which those qualities could achieve the impossible while in peacetime the same attributes contributed to one of the U. S. Navy’s most significant disasters (Trudeau, 2012). The 18 ships were meant to travel along the California coast to San Diego, with their two high powered and low powered turbines, four tall thin funnels and a book speed topped at 32 knots. Due to the postwar budget cutbacks, they were operating at 20-30% below full complement. Although a lot of live were lost during this tragedy, all the blame wasn’t on Captain Hunter. Everyone played a part, from, Watson’s fixation on making a record 20-knot passage along with his failure to supervise the navigation, Blodgett’s inability to express his concerns, and the silence of the other squadron officers. Uncertainties surround the new technology, unusual weather conditions and minor equipment problems also played a part (Trudeau, 2012). Lesson Learned: This case illustrated the importance of human error and testing all new technology before use. Although all faults in the technology may not be quickly discovered testing all aspects is critical. It is learned that although you may be proficient in a skill and have applicable experience, mistakes still happen. The people with great skill and power, like Lieutenant Commander Donald T. Hunter, are still fallible as human beings. Despite having a fully functioning technology system to navigate, it shouldn’t completely be dependent on. Instead, the two should assist each other, human intelligence and newfound technology. Additional Reference: Trudeau, N. A. (2012, March 2). California Naval History-Point Honda: A Naval Tragedys Chain of Errors. Retrieved October 29, 2012, from The California State Military Museum: A United States Army Museum Activity: Preserving Californias Military Heritage: militarymuseum. org/PtHonda. html

How to Conjugate the French Verb Détester

How to Conjugate the French Verb Dà ©tester The French verb  dà ©tester  means to hate. Unlike some other verbs, this one is fairly easy to remember because of its similarity to the English word detest. As with the English verb, you would use  dà ©tester  to express an extreme dislike for something, such as food or a particular household chore youre not fond of. Like the majority of verbs in French,  dà ©tester is a regular verb. Conjugating Dà ©tester Verb conjugations can become a headache for French students because there are so many verb forms to remember. Not only does the infinitive ending change with each tense and mood, it also changes with each subject pronoun. For   example, I hate is je dà ©teste and we will hate is nous dà ©testerons. Its easier to memorize all these forms if you practice them in context and simple sentences. Subject Present Future Imperfect je dteste dtesterai dtestais tu dtestes dtesteras dtestais il dteste dtestera dtestait nous dtestons dtesterons dtestions vous dtestez dtesterez dtestiez ils dtestent dtesteront dtestaient Present and Past Participle The  present participle  of  dà ©testant  is formed by adding -ant  to the verb stem of  dà ©test. While its primarily used as a verb, you will find it useful as an adjective, gerund, or noun as well. Beyond the imperfect, another form of the past tense hated is the  passà © composà ©. This one is formed in a different manner and relies on the  past participle  dà ©testà ©. To complete it, you must also conjugate the  auxiliary verb  avoir.   As an example, I hated is jai dà ©testà © and we hated is nous avons dà ©testà ©. More Conjugations There will be times when you will need to imply some degree of uncertainty to the verb  dà ©tester  as well. For this, use the subjunctive verb mood. In a similar fashion, the conditional form is used when the hating is dependent on something else happening. You should not use the passà © simple unless youre reading or writing in French. The same applies to the imperfect subjunctive, though its a good idea to be able to recognize these as forms of  dà ©tester. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Pass Simple Imperfect Subjunctive je dteste dtesterais dtestai dtestasse tu dtestes dtesterais dtestas dtestasses il dteste dtesterait dtesta dtestt nous dtestions dtesterions dtestmes dtestassions vous dtestiez dtesteriez dtesttes dtestassiez ils dtestent dtesteraient dtestrent dtestassent The imperative verb form may be quite useful with  dà ©tester  because its often used in exclamations. When using it, the subject pronoun is not required: use dà ©teste rather than tu dà ©teste. Imperative (tu) dteste (nous) dtestons (vous) dtestez

Project paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Project - Research Paper Example External requirements for funding persist to cause susceptibility of the financial system. Self-confidence in the financial system amongst overseas stakeholders remains huge, which implies a BOP deficit is improbable. Payment threats among the banking industry are anticipated to become unimportant, while financial support problems as well as exchange exposure is preventing Turkish companies’ creditworthiness (Duman, 2011). This paper is going to do a risk assessment of Turkey, carry out a budget analysis and finally draw a proposal that will be submitted to the  state executives of the host nation. The political climates of Turkey have in history been a cause of fiscal and social nervousness in the state. Armed forces coups with feeble coalition regimes have added to reckless financial guiding principles which have resulted in great inflation along with sharp rise and falls between recoveries and recessions in the financial structure (Duman, 2011). The voting during 2002 was a defining moment with the success of the fair Islamic people and publicly conventional AK lobby group. Electoral achievement offered the State an authorization to execute numerous essential political as well as financial restructurings that have brought the nation near to the European Union. Temporarily, Turkish nation plays a gradually more distinct political function in the Asia continent as well as N. Africa (Duman, 2011). There has been tension involving the AK group as well as secular in addition to armed forces divisions since the ballot vote of 2002. Numerous contentious trials in opposition to the armed forces, company executives, reporters and inhabitants signify divisions inside Turkish culture and have resulted in the sovereignty of the lawful structure into question. In the side of Turkeys history, better resident control against the forces is intensifying the state’s political

American History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

American History - Essay Example The Treaty of Versailles involved a peace agreement signed after First World War had ended in the late 1918 and in the gumshoe of the Russian Revolution among other events in Russia. Versailles treaty got signed at the massive Versailles Palace close to Paris - hence its name - between Germany and Allies. Present was David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and Georges Clemenceau. Many wanted Germany, led by Friedrich Ebert, shattered - others, like Lloyd George, remained privately more cautious. Ku Klux Klan, regularly abbreviated KKK and informally called â€Å"the Klan†, is the name of 3 distinct present and past far – right organizations in the US which have supported extremist reactionary currents such as white nationalism, anti - immigration and white supremacy, historically expressed through terrorism. The first Klan thrived in the Southern US in the late 1860s; it then collapsed by early 1870s. Members embraced white costumes: robes, conical hats and masks, designed to be odd and terrifying, and to conceal their identities. The second KKK thrived countrywide in the mid and early 1920s, and embraced the same code words and costumes as the first Klan, however, introducing cross burnings. Lusitania was a ship that sunk in the First World War by German U - boats. The ship was an English ship made by the Cunard lines and is considered by many people as a major motive the USA engaged in WW1. It used to be a passenger vessel and hence should not have involved as a military target; however, it got suspected that England used the ship to illegally sneak in explosives from America into the country. Over 1000 people died the night of the sinking many of them being Americans and that remained one of the causes that made US go to war in Europe. Pearl Harbor got attacked by the Japanese Imperial General quarters as a surprise military strike directed

Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships in Lifelong Learning Essay Example for Free

Roles, Responsibilities and Relationships in Lifelong Learning Essay Carry out research into your own role and responsibilities as a teacher. Using your research, produce a written report of your findings which should include: a) A summary of key aspects of legislation, regulatory requirements and codes of practice relevant to the roles and responsibilities of the teacher. b) An analysis of the boundaries between the teaching role and other professional roles c) A review of points of referral to meet the needs of learners d) An explanation of how to promote appropriate behaviour and respect for others. Intro Teaching is a challenging and rewarding profession. There are many roles and responsibilities that teachers are required to fulfil, some of these are professional responsibilities pastoral There is lots of legislation that influences teachers, particularly in the area of outdoor pursuits. Much of this legislation is designed to keep students safe and followed in the wake of the Lyme bay canoe disaster in 1993.Following this tragedy the Activity centres (young person’s safety) act was passed in 1995. The Health safety commission (HSC) was charged with the terms of the act and the responsibility for drawing up new regulations. This resulted in the formation of the Adventure activities licensing authority (AALA) in 1996. This independent public body is responsible for inspecting outdoor activity providers (for under-18s) and granting them a licence if they are deemed to be operating safely in accordance with the guidelines of AALA and other national governing bodies (ref 1.1). These governing bodies are responsible for the regulation of each outdoor sport or activity in the UK and each governing body will have their own codes of practice. For example, Mountain training UK (2008: 11) states that they expect their members to; â€Å"Ensure that they operate within their competence and in a manner appropriate to the participants experience and ability† Teachers need to be conscious of maintaining professional relationships with students at all times. This is not always straightforward, particularly in  the often more relaxed atmosphere of further education where some â€Å"banter† with students will often be used to help build rapport. Teachers need to be careful not to overstep this boundary; students are rarely impressed and sometimes even embarrassed by tutors who try to identify with them too closely. Curzon (2003: 249) These boundaries also extend outside of college. Teachers need to be conscious of how they act and must protect their privacy on social media sites such as Facebook. Trying to meet the needs of all learners is a key foundation of teaching. Thorough planning is essential here as different learning needs and issues may be identified prior to teaching and plans made to support the learner. Sometimes issues may arise during a teaching program and these will need to be dealt with. If the teacher does not have the skills or experience to deal with the issue it is vital that they refer it to a professional in that field. Gravells (2012: 52) supports this stating that â€Å"you should always refer your students to a specialist or agency if you cannot deal with their needs†. (ref 2.2) Dealing with student behaviour is an important, complex and potentially time consuming part of teaching. Ideally a teacher should be a role model for students to aspire to and should be able to promote and reward appropriate behaviour. It is when student behaviour starts to become disruptive and prevents others from learning that problems occur. Curzon (2003: 245) believes that â€Å"lack of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be discerned as the root of the problem. This suggests to us that teachers should aim to inspire students and actively involve them as much as possible in the classroom. As well as providing inspiration a teacher will also need to provide discipline. There will need to be some ground rules that are laid down at the start of a teaching program to keep students on track. Ideally these ground rules should be decided on via a democratic process with the students although there will be some that the teacher will need to enforce the inclusion of e.g. no bullying other students. Any breach of the ground rules set at the start of the teaching program should be met initially with a friendly reminder of those rules. Students who continue to disrupt the learning of others by breaking the rules will need to be dealt with  immediately. It may also be of use for teachers to keep a record of behaviour for students. This could highlight patterns of behaviour that may be possible to avoid in future, for example by changing the seating plan. Any continued patterns of behaviour could also highlight the need for additional support as disruption could be a way of asking for help Gravells (2012: 101) Conclusion The research in this report shows that teachers need to have a wide range of skills and knowledge. They need to have an understanding of government legislation and how it affects them Word count words References Curzon, L.B. (2003) Teaching in further education, London, Continuum books Gravells, A. (2012) Preparing to teach in the lifelong learning sector: The new award, London, Sage publications Mountain leader training (2008) National guidelines for walking and climbing leaders, Wales, Mountain leader training

Good to Great Book Review Essay -- Good Great Business Management Essa

Good to Great Book Review To transform a good company to great company is all manages’ dream, but only few of them make it. To find out the core factors which lead to a good company became a great company is very difficult, because in different era, different industry companies face different opportunities and threats. To begin the research for the Good-to-Great study, Jim Collins and his research team searched for companies that: performed at or below the general stock market for at least fifteen years; then at a transition point began to pull away from the competition, and sustained returns of at least 3 times the general market for the next fifteen years. He started with a list of 1,435 companies and found eleven that met his criteria. These eleven companies produced, on average, a return of 6.9 times the general stock market during the 15 years following the transition points. Collins chose a 15-year span to avoid "one-hit wonders" and lucky breaks. In the book, Collins highlights some important fa ctors which are the result of the research. They are level 5 leadership, fist who †¦ then what, confront the brutal facts, the hedgehog concept, culture of discipline, and technology accelerators, (Collins, 2001, p.12). According to Wheelen & Hunger, strategic management â€Å"is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of a corporation. It includes environmental scanning (both external and internal), strategy formulation (strategic or long-range planning), strategy implementation, and evaluation and control† (2004, p2). All eleven good to great companies are benefit from strategic management and gain long term strategic advantage then lead to outperforming compared companies. The first factor is level 5 leadership. A leader is the soul of the company. Base on the research, every good-to-great company had level 5 leaders during the pivotal transition years. In the book, level 5 leaders embody a paradoxical blend of personal humility and professional will (Collins, 2001, p.13). Darwin E. Smith is an example of lever 5 leasers. Smith transforms Kimberly-Clark into the leading paper-based consumer products company in the world within twenty years. Generated cumulative stocks return 4.1 times the general market, furthermore beating its direct rivals Procter & Gamble and Scott Paper. Level 5 leaderships’ ambition i... ...gy not likes leader, concept, and culture; it is an accelerator for the company. Good-to-great companies used technology as an accelerator of momentum, not a creator of it. None of the good-to-great company began their transformations with pioneering technology, yet they all became pioneers in the application of technology once they grasped how it fit with their three circles and after they hit breakthrough (Collins, 2001, p.162). Before become a pioneer in the application of the technology, we have to do the external and internal scanning to see is it the technology fit our long term strategic and hedgehog concept. Generally speaking, Good-to-Great are base on six major factors: leadership, staffing, information, concept, culture and technology. All these factors drive the companies good to great. Without a doubt, this is a must read for anyone in business, running a business or starting a business. Reference Collins, J. (2001). Don’t Good to Great – Why Some Companies Make the Leap†¦and Others. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. Wheelen T.L., & Hunger J.D. (2004). Strategic Management and Business Policy (9thed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.

Aeronautical Decision Making Essay

The airlines developed some of the first training programs that focused on improving aeronautical decision making (ADM). ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by airline pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. Human-factors-related accidents motivated the airline industry to implement crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews. The focus of CRM programs is the effective use of all available resources: human resources, hardware, and information. Human resources consist of all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew (or pilot) who are involved in decisions that are required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: dispatchers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. The importance of learning effective ADM skills cannot be overemphasized in the airline industry. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, airline equipment and systems, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor still remains the same – the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 75 percent of all aviation accidents are human factors related. Historically, the term pilot error has been used to describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error means that an action or decision made by the pilot was the cause, or a contributing factor that led to the accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure to make a decision or take action. From a broader perspective, the phrase â€Å"human factors related† more suitably describes these accidents since it is usually not a single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of events triggered by a number of various factors. The poor judgment chain, sometimes referred to as the error chain, is a term used to describe this concept of contributing factors in human factors-related-accidents. Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that is necessary to change the outcome in a sequence of events. By discussing events that lead to an accident, it can be understood how a series of judgment errors can contribute to the final outcome of a flight. An understanding of the decision-making process provides a pilot with a foundation for developing ADM skills. Some situations, such as engine-failures, require a pilot to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for detailed analysis. Traditionally, pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies, but are not as well prepared to make decisions requiring a more reflective response. Typically during a flight, there is time to examine any changes that occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion constitute the decision making process are defining the problem, choosing a course of action, and implementing the decision and evaluating the outcome. The first step in the decision making process is problem definition. Defining the problem begins with recognizing that a change has occurred or that an expected change did not take place. The exact nature and severity of the problem are determined by the pilot’s senses and experience in flying. For example, a low oil pressure reading could indicate that the engine is about to fail and an emergency landing should be planned or it could mean that the oil pressure sensor is giving a faulty reading. According to the situation, each action by the pilot is taken differently. An important note is that once the pilot has identified the problem, other sources must be used to verify that the conclusion is correct. Once the problem has been identified, the pilot must evaluate the need to react to it and determine that actions that must be used to remedy the problem. The expected outcome of each possible action should be considered and the risks assessed before deciding on a response to the situation. Although a decision may be reached and a course of action implemented, the decision making is not complete. It is important to think ahead and determine how the decision could affect other phases of the flight. As the flight progresses, the pilot must continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired result. The decision-making process normally consists of several steps before choosing a course of action. To help remember the elements of the decision-making process, a six-step model has been previously developed using the acronym â€Å"decide. † Detect the fact that a change has occurred Estimate the need to counter or react to the change Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight Identify actions which could successfully control the change. Do the necessary action to adapt to the change Evaluate the effect of the action Another important aeronautical decision making is risk management. During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events involving interactions between the four risk elements: the pilot in command, the airplane, the environment, and the operation. The decision-making process involves an evaluation of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight situation. A pilot must continually make decisions about competency, condition of health, mental and emotional state, level of fatigue, and many other factors. Airplane—a pilot will frequently base decisions on the evaluations of the airplane, such as performance, equipment, or worthiness in the air. Environment—this encompasses many elements not pilot or airplane related. It can include such factors as weather, air traffic control, navaids, terrain, takeoff and landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one element that can change drastically over time. Operation—the interaction between the pilot, airplane, and the environment is greatly influenced by the purpose of each flight operation. Also, exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the control of an airplane. Often, pilots thoroughly check their airplane to determine airworthiness, but they do no evaluate their own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist is used when pilots check their pre-flight of an airplane, a personal checklist based on such factors as experience, currency, and comfort level can help determine if a pilot is prepared for the flight. In addition to a review of personal limitations, use the â€Å"i’m safe† Checklist in evaluation of the pilot.

Conditioning Procedures in Shaping Children’s Behaviour Essay

A child is repeatedly exhibiting inappropriate and unwanted behaviour (e.g. hitting sibling), which conditioning procedures could be used to most effectively stop this? Behaviours that produce favourable consequences are repeated and become habits, but those that produce unfavourable consequences tend not to recur (Ouellette and Wood, 1998 as cited in Martin et.al, 2006). Experience changes the probability of repeating certain behaviours indicating that learning involves adaptation. As time goes on, old behaviours are eliminated and new behaviours are learned. Pavlov discovered and formalized many of the most important laws of classical behaviour, B.F.Skinner (1938) investigated and formalized may of the basic laws of operant behavior. (Sheppard & Willoughby, 1975). Habituation and classical conditioning taught us the stimuli in the environment where we learn to ignore unimportant stimuli and learn those that predict occurrence of the important ones. (Martin et.al, 2006). Operant conditioning involves the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behaviour. Operant conditioning was first discovered by Edward L. Thorndike where he placed a hungry cat in a small chamber called puzzle box with food placed outside as a stimuli where the car need to performed an appropriate response to open the door of the puzzle box. The cat become less random and more efficient until it open the latch without hesitation after several random attempt. Thorndike called this relation between a response and its consequences the law of effect. (Martin et.al, 2006). Although Thorndike discovered the law of effect, B.F Skinner was the one who brought the study of operant conditioning into the lab and devised objective methods for studying human behaviour. He invented the operant chamber which is also known as the Skinner box where animal’s behaviour can be easily observed, manipulated, and automatically recorded. Operant conditioning allows us to learn association between behaviour and outcome. It teaches children to modify their behaviour to maximise the possible rewards they can get and taught them to learn from previous experience. When a child is repeatedly exhibiting inappropriate and unwanted behaviour, operant conditioning can be used to correct the behaviour of the child. There are four basic principles used in the operant conditioning, which can be described as positive reinforcement (reward), negative reinforcement (escape), punishment and omission. (Rachlin, 1976) Positive reinforcement and punishments referred  as environmental events that may affect on individuals. Reinforcement Is neither an environmental nor a behavioural event but a relationship between two which tends to increase responding by either positive or negative means. Whereas punishment is a relationship that tends to decrease responding by either positive or negative means. Operant behaviour is modified by its consequences and the consequences which modify behaviour are called reinforcers. Consequences Positive reinforcement is where there is an increase in the frequency of response behaviour that is regularly and reliably followed by a positive stimulus. Positive reinforcement can also be considered in terms of reward. The principle of reward was stated in Thorndike’s â€Å"law of effect† – a reward tends to increase the probability that the response to which it is related will recur. (Rachlin, 1976) The effect of the reward will be pleasant and reinforce the behaviour of children. For example candy or attention can serve as rewards for children if they behave properly. This might encourage them to stop the inappropriate behaviour as behaving properly will give them something nice. Negative reinforcement involves the avoidance of an aversive stimulus, also known as escape. Negative reinforcement work in two ways, either it decreases the frequency of occurrence of operant behaviour that it follows or it increases the frequency of occurrence of operant behaviour that removes or terminates it. (Sheppard & Willoughby, 1975) The consequences are often painful and the effects are unpleasant. Because of the nature of aversive stimuli of negative reinforcement, it is usually difficult to program long intervals between negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement might be effective if the aversive stimuli is used wisely. One of the commonly used procedures for weakening operant behaviour is punishment. Punishment refers to a decrease in the frequency of the response that is regularly and reliably followed by an aversive stimulus. (Martin et.al, 2006). The principle of punishment is the inverse of Thorndike’s law – an aversive, or noxious, stimulus tends to decrease the probability that the response to which it is related will occur. (Rachlin, 1976) In operant conditioning, reinforcement is neither an environmental nor behavioural event, but a relationship between the two that tends to increase responding by either positive or negative means. Punishment, likewise, is a relationship that tends to decrease responding by either positive or negative means. Parents will often  choose punishment such as scolding or sometimes some physical punishment if the children exhibit inappropriate behaviour. Punishment has an immediate effect on unwanted behaviour. When a parents spanks a child for hitting their siblings or yells at them for their misbehaviour, the immediate decrease in the punished response negatively reinforces the parent’s spanking response. Many parents rely heavily on punishment to terminate the aversive behaviour of their children without fully understanding the effects of punishment. However, Punishment can produce a number of undesirable effects. First, punishment can results in emotional trauma such as fear, anger, anxiety and depression. It might cause the disruption of learning and performance of the children. Secondly, punishment sometimes might lead to suppression of all behaviours, not only the misbehaviour being punished. Furthermore, punishment requires continual monitoring of the individual’s behaviour in the real world. The use of punishment might try to encircle the rules of escape from the situation entirely. Mazur (1998) held that if the teacher used punishment as his primary method of behavioural control, a child might try to hide the proof of their misbehaviour. It might not help to correct the misbehaviour of the child. Another problem associated with punishment is that it can lead to aggressive behaviour by the punished child. This aggression might be directed against the punisher or another individual. With the numerous disadvantages above, parents should be using punishment wisely and with great care as it might influence the behaviour of children in the future. A negative punishment or an omission of reward occurs when the absence of a reward, otherwise present in the environment, is related to the response. Like punishment, the omission of reward tends to decrease the probability that the response will recur. (Rachlin, 1976) Example of omission is that parents may confiscate the child’s favourite toy or grounding the child for his misbehaviour. In operant conditioning, extinction consists in the removal of the conditioning relationship between response and reward or punishment. (Rachlin, 1976) Behaviour that is not longer being reinforced will then decrease in frequency. Example is that a child will stop crying and shouting if the parents choose to ignore him. However, extinction is not the same as forgetting. Forgetting takes place when a behaviour is not rehearsed for a long time. Extinction takes place when a person makes a response that is no  longer reinforced. (Martin et.al, 2006). Another procedure where parents can stop the child from exhibiting inappropriate behaviour is by using a technique developed by Skinner called shaping. It involves reinforcing any behaviour that successively approximates the desired response. (Martin et.al, 2006) Parents can teach children about behaving properly and praises children for their good behaviour. Rewards will be given and children will reinforce their good behaviour. Successful shaping requires that the right step size be selected and that each approximation be reinforced only enough times to allow the criterion to be increase while still maintaining the behaviour at each step. (Sheppard & Willoughby, 1975) However, there are some limitation to the Reinforcement is mainly studied in terms of primary reinforcers and primary punishers. Primary reinforcers are the biological positive (appetitive) unconditioned stimuli such as food and water. Primary punishers are the biological negative (aversive) unconditioned stimuli such as pain and illness. Other than that, behaviour can also be reinforced with wide variety of stimuli. These stimuli are called conditioned or secondary reinforcers. It is the stimuli that have acquired their positive and negative values through conditioning. Examples of positive value might be money and negative values might be fines. Similarly, conditioned punishers acquire their punishing effects through association with aversive events. (Martin et.al, 2006). Example of this is children get lecture or even grounded for their misbehaviour. Conditioned reinforcement and punishment are very important in permitting an organism’s behaviour to be affected by stimuli that are not biologically important in themselves but that are regularly associated with the onset or termination of biologically important stimuli. (Martin et.al, 2006) Conditioned reinforcers and punishers allow for behaviour to be altered by a wide variety of contingencies. In conclusion, when a child exhibit an inappropriate or unwanted behaviour, parents should consider using appropriate conditioning methods to effectively stop the wrong behaviour of the child. Positive reinforcement is a better option than punishment in altering behaviour as positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioural modification, whereas punishment only temporarily changes behaviour and presents many detrimental  side effects. Reference: Martin, G.N., Carlson, N.R., & Bukist, G.N. (2007). Psychology, 3rd Edition. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. Mazur, J.E. (1998). Learning and Behaviour, 4th edition, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Sheppard, W.C.,& Willoughby, R.H.(1975). Child Behavior: Learning and Development. Rand McNally College Publishing Company. Walker, S. (1984). Learning Theory and Behaviour Modification. Methuen. Rachlin, H. (1976). Behavior and Learning. W.H. Freeman and Company.

CONT Example

CONT Example CONT' – Coursework Example The crime control model and the due process model both have their pros and cons in their implementation to establish a just and upright system to control crimes and at the same time to allow freedom to the citizens. The crime control model revolves around devising measures to control crimes. It is a thorough system which struggles to catch a convict and allows a suitable punishment to an offender. However, on the other hand, the system does not cater to meet the rights of an individual but it works thoroughly to control criminal activities with a suitable punishment to an offender. The due process system grants maximum rights and freedom to the citizens. The due process system helps an offender to be tagged as innocent before the guilt is proven and provides him maximum liberty before the prosecution proves his guilt. I personally believe that crime control model would be more effective and efficient in its implementation to control and monitor criminal activities as well as to give the offender the kind of punishment he deserves for his actions. On the other hand, due process system is least efficient in its implementation as it allows the offender to gain maximum benefit from the system unless he is proven guilty. It gives an opportunity to the offenders to commit a crime for once again without being caught or being punished for his previous actions and hence, it endangers the lives of many innocents around him. Crime control model ensures that the offender is getting what he deserves. Implementation of such a system would be an eye opener for many criminals on the streets to learn a lesson from just one example.

Bhavesh.Amin

Bhavesh.Amin Essay CSC 4810-Artificial Intelligence ASSG# 4 Support Vector MachineSVM is an implementation of Support Vector Machine (SVM). SupportVector Machine was developed by Vapnik. The main futures of the programare the following: for the problem of pattern recognition, for the problemof regression, for the problem of learning a ranking function. Underlyingthe success of SVM are mathematical foundations of statistical learningtheory. Rather than minimizing the training error, SVMs minimizestructural risk which express and upper bound on generalization error. SVM are popular because they usually achieve good error rates and canhandle unusual types of data like text, graphs, and images. SVMs leading idea is to classify the input data separating themwithin a decision threshold lying far from the two classes and scoring alow number of errors. SVMs are used for pattern recognition. Basically,a data set is used to train a particular machine. This machine can learnmore by retraining it with the old data plus the new data. The trainedmachine is as unique as the data that was used to train it and thealgorithm that was used to process the data. Once a machine is trained, itcan be used to predict how closely a new data set matches the trainedmachine. In other words, Support Vector Machines are used for patternrecognition. SVM uses the following equation to trained the VectorMachine: H(x) = sign {wx + b}Wherew = weight vectorb = thresholdThe generalization abilities of SVMs and other classifiers differsignificantly especially when the number of training data is small. Thismeans that if some mechanism to maximize margins of decision boundaries isintroduced to non-SVM type clas sifiers, their performance degradation willbe prevented when the class overlap is scarce or non-existent. In theoriginal SVM, the n-class classification problem is converted into n two-class problems, and in the ith two-class problem we determine the optimaldecision function that separates class i from the remaining classes. Inclassification, if one of the n decision functions classifies an unknowndatum into a definite class, it is classified into that class. In thisformulation, if more than one decision function classifies a datum intodefinite classes, or no decision functions classify the datum into adefinite class, the datum is unclassifiable. To resolve unclassifiable regions for SVMswe discuss four types ofSVMs: one against all SVMs; pairwise SVMs; ECOC (Error Correction OutputCode) SVMs; all at once SVMs; and their variants. Another problem of SVMis slow training. Since SVM are trained by a solving quadratic programmingproblem with number of variables equals to the number of training data,training is slow for a large number of training data. We discuss trainingof Sims by decomposition techniques combined with a steepest ascent method. Support Vector Machine algorithm also plays big role in internetindustry. For example, the Internet is huge, made of billions of documentsthat are growing exponentially every year. However, a problem exists intrying to find a piece of information amongst the billions of growingdocuments. Current search engines scan for key words in the documentprovided by the user in a search query. Some search engines such as Googleeven go as far as to offer page rankings by users who have previouslyvisited the page. This relies on other people ranking the page accordingto their needs. Even though these techniques help millions of users a dayretrieve their information, it is not even close to being an exact science. The problem lies in finding web pages based on your search query thatactually contain the information you are looking for. READ: Homeless: What Has Been Done To Decrease The Probl EssayHere is the figure of SVM algorithm:It is important to understand the mechanism behind the SVM. The SVMimplement the Bayes rule in interesting way. Instead of estimating P(x) itestimates sign P(x)-1/2. This is advantage when our goal is binaryclassification with minimal excepted misclassification rate. However, thisalso means that in some other situation the SVM needs to be modified andshould not be used as is. In conclusion, Support Vector Machine support lots of real worldapplications such as text categorization, hand-written characterrecognition, image classification, bioinformatics, etc. Their firstintroduction in early 1990s lead to a recent explosion of applications anddeepening theoretical analysis that was now established Support VectorMachines along with neural networks as one of standard tools for machinelearning and data mining. There is a big use of Support Vector Machine inMedical Field. Reference:Boser, B., Guyon, I and Vapnik, V.N.(1992). A training algorithm foroptimal margin classifiers. http://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~cjlin/papers/tanh.pdf

Capital punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Capital punishment - Essay Example However, the debate concerning capital punishment according to Sustein and Vermeule is merely centered on an unquestioned assumption that acts are morally different from omissions in the eye of the government, and the failure to question this assumption is a fundamental moral error. In this case, they argue that â€Å"an indefensible form of the act or omission distinction is important to some of the leading objections to capital punishment† (Sustein and Vermeule 705). Therefore, defenders of capital punishment have failed to notice the logical conclusion of their theory that capital punishment is in fact morally obligatory and not just permissible, by making the same distinction. To this end, Sustein and Vermeule suggest that on the strength of certain empirical assumptions, capital punishment may not only be permissible, but also it may be a moral requirement to discourage the taking of innocent lives, rather than for punitive reasons. Steiker critiques Cass Sunstain and Adr ian Vermeule’s argument that establishment of the validity of recent empirical studies that have associated capital punishment with a substantial deterrent effect should lead consequentialists and deontologists to conclude that capital punishment is not only morally permissible, but also morally required. Steiker (751) contends that â€Å"while the empirical evidences suggesting associations between capital punishment and considerable levels of deterrence are highly suspect, acknowledging that the government has special moral duties does not render inadequately deterred private murders the moral equivalent of government executions.† In this case, Steiker argues that executions constitute not only a purposeful moral wrong, but also a distinctive sort of injustice and acceptance of ‘threshold’ deontology does not call for a commitment to capital punishment, the proven substantial deterrence notwithstanding. In addition, Steiker suggests that Sustein and Verm eule imposes the acceptance of brutal or disproportionate punishments, and urges that not even consequentialists should be convinced with the argument that capital punishment is morally required (Steiker 786). The two articles disagree on the issue that capital punishment is morally required; whereas Sustein and Vermeule claim that capital punishment is not only permissible but also morally required, particularly give the proven empirical evidence between capital punishment and deterrence, Steiker firmly refutes their conclusion. Steiker faults Sustein and Vermeule because their conclusion automatically sanctions the acceptance of brutal and disproportionate punishments. This is because according to Steiker, capital punishment is not morally required because it is both a moral wrong and an injustice. The disagreement between Sustein and Vermeule, and Steiker is both sociological and legal in nature, particularly because whereas the former content that the government has the moral ob ligation of deterring the taking of innocent lives, the latter contend that capital punishment is morally required wrong and unjustifiable. Whereas Steiker arrives at his conclusion by critiquing and countering Sustein and Verme